The 商 Shāng Dynasty (1600–1046 BCE)

One of the vassal kingdoms, the 商 Shāng kingdom, had become especially powerful thanks to trade. When various groups began to oppose the 夏 Xià dynasty, the 商 Shāng led their large armies against the capital. Later historians asserted that King 夏桀 Xià Jié had lost the 天命 Tiānmìng, Mandate of Heaven; thus, when the 商 Shāng armies arrived at the capital, the 夏 Xià forces joined them against the king. 夏桀 Xià Jié committed suicide before the 商 Shāng managed to take the royal palace. In this manner, China's second dynasty, the 商 Shāng dynasty, was established.

Historical Records

There are many ancient writings concerning the history of the 商 Shāng dynasty. The 尚书 Shàng Shū, Book of Documents—one of the Five Classics of ancient Chinese literature—the 左傳 Zuǒ Zhuàn, and even the 孟子 Mèngzǐ mention the existence of the 商 Shāng and compile some of their stories. 荀子 Xúnzǐ (313–238 BCE) attaches great importance to this dynasty for having created the names of the penalties for crimes, a demonstration of the immense power of their judicial system.

However, the primary reference work is the 史记 Shǐjì, Records of the Grand Historian, written by the historian 司马迁 Sīmǎ Qiān (145–86 BCE). This book compiles the names of all the 商 Shāng kings, including their years of reign, their major contributions to the construction of the kingdom, and even the names of the six capitals that succeeded one another over time. 司马迁 Sīmǎ Qiān calls this dynasty the 殷 Yīn, a late informal name for the 商 Shāng derived from the name of their last and most powerful capital.

Also according to 司马迁 Sīmǎ Qiān, an ancestor of the 商 Shāng had assisted King 大禹 Dà Yǔ with the massive hydraulic works for flood control. As a reward for his help, and for having demonstrated great leadership capacity and concern for the people, the king granted him the administration of a realm.

The Myth in Dragon Bones

Research on these oracle bones and their area of origin continued almost uninterruptedly in search of ancient 商 Shāng cities. In 1928, a series of archaeological remains was discovered near the city of 安阳 Ānyáng in 河南 Hénán province. The presence of the 甲骨文 jiăgŭwén alongside bronze artifacts directly linked them to the 商 Shāng dynasty. Investigations were virtually halted in 1937 due to the Japanese invasion.

Following the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, research activities were able to resume. By 1950, archaeologists succeeded in identifying the remains of an ancient 商 Shāng city near the city of 郑州 Zhèngzhōu, in 河南 Hénán province.

The Culture of 二里岗 Èr lǐ gǎng

In 1959, the remains of the 二里头 Èr lǐ tou culture were discovered, corresponding to the 夏 Xià dynasty, the first dynasty in Chinese history. Continuing research in the area, in 1983, researchers discovered a later city, which they named the culture of 二里岗 Èr lǐ gǎng. Carbon-14 dating showed that these remains correspond to the era of the 商 Shāng dynasty.

The culture of 二里岗 Èr lǐ gǎng extended along the 黄河 Huáng Hé, Yellow River, and through trade managed to encompass a territory even larger than its predecessors. Along with the oracle bones, all kinds of jade, ceramic, stone, and bronze utensils have been discovered—some of nearly monumental scale—as well as a vast quantity of weapons and armor. While the foundations of ancient royal palaces, city walls, and routes have been found, the principal sources of archaeological artifacts are the tombs. Some of these tombs contain mass burials including horses with their war chariots and riders. 

Area of influence of the culture of 二里岗 Èr lǐ gǎng.

The Awakening of the 饕餮 Tāotiè

The surface of the 鼎 dǐng (2) is decorated with images of the 饕餮 Tāotiè, a mythological animal with a ravenous appetite, and four 夔 Kuí, single-legged dragons. The 饕餮 Tāotiè is not merely a voracious beast; in the philosophy of Chinese art, it represents shamanic power and communication with the spiritual realm through ritual sacrifice. The handles are decorated with tigers whose jaws close over the head of a person. This imagery of the tiger biting a head is also very common in 商 Shāng battle axe designs.

This impressive 鼎 dǐng of the 商 Shāng dynasty was restored and can be viewed at the 中国国家博物馆 Zhōngguó Guójiā Bówùguǎn, National Museum of China, located opposite 天安门 Tiān'ānmén Square in 北京 Běijīng.

The Legacy of Ritual and Writing

More than a simple succession of kings, the 商 Shāng dynasty established the "genetic code" of Chinese civilization. Its legacy is not limited to bronze artifacts, but manifests in three fundamental pillars that endure to this day:

• Writing: Unlike other Bronze Age civilizations whose scripts were lost (such as Mycenaean Linear B), the 甲骨文 jiǎgǔwén are the direct ancestors of the characters used today in China. Observing an oracle bone is not viewing a dead language, but witnessing the beginning of an unbroken chain of thought that has enabled China to maintain its cultural identity across millennia.

• Ritual: With the 商 Shāng, power ceased to be merely military and became ceremonial. The use of 鼎 dǐng and the sophistication of sacrificial rituals laid the foundations for the ritual that Confucius would later place at the center of social harmony. Authority was not only exercised; it was enacted through a complex system of bronze vessels and ritual music.

• Ancestors: The 商 Shāng worldview, in which ancestors act as mediators with the spiritual world, evolved toward the ethics of filial piety. This structure of respect for hierarchy and family history became the social glue that allowed subsequent dynasties to expand and consolidate territory under a shared worldview. 

More than a simple succession of kings, the 商 Shāng dynasty established the "genetic code" of Chinese civilization. Its legacy is not limited to bronze artifacts, but manifests in three fundamental pillars that endure to this day: