Stages of Confucianism

One of the primary challenges in studying 儒家 Rújiā, Confucianism—and simultaneously one of its most remarkable characteristics—is its continuing vitality over more than 2,500 years. Throughout this span, it has preserved core elements while changing and mutating, adapting to the times and incorporating features from other schools.

When explaining the different stages of Confucianism, there are at least three periods commonly mentioned: Ancient or Classical Confucianism (characteristic of the thought of Confucius, Mencius, and Xunzi), Neo-Confucianism, and New Confucianism. While this serves as a good propaedeutic, it is worthwhile to delve deeper and ask whether there is a more useful way to understand the evolution of this school. 

We accompany this reading with text boxes featuring traditional Confucian values.

What it means to periodize

First and foremost, it is worth clarifying that while a school such as the Confucian one—which has remained active over such an extended duration—necessarily underwent an evolution, periodization is a didactic resource. It provides a partial, schematic account of the wide variety and nuances present within Confucian philosophy. In this sense, we believe that periodization is highly useful, but it must not become a rigid framework that prevents us from perceiving the infinite richness of different thinkers throughout time.

One strategy to break away from the idea that periodizations are nothing more than didactic schematizations is to present several of them, thereby revealing their instrumental nature. In this way, one or another can be adopted according to the hermeneutical utility of the moment. We will share three periodizations and then offer a final reflection.

Three Periodizations

• a) Period of the Philosophers: This would span from Confucius (551–479 BCE) to the Prince of 淮南 Huáinán (179–122 BCE). During this period, the basic philosophical outlines were established, which would become the reference point for the rest of the history of Chinese philosophy.

• b) Period of Classical Learning or Scholasticism: 冯友兰 Féng Yǒulán defines this second period as 经学时代 Jīngxué shídài, the Age of Classical Learning. The term 经学 jīngxué is vital here because it marks the transition from the creation of the classics to exegesis as the primary mode of philosophizing. It extends from 董仲舒 Dǒng Zhòngshū (179–104 BCE)—a Confucian philosopher who advocated for the adoption of this school as the theoretical mainstay of the 汉 Hàn dynasty—until 康有为 Kāng Yǒuwéi (1858–1927). During this period, thinkers referred back to those of the Period of the Philosophers, even when their own proposals were original.

2) 牟宗三 Móu Zōngsān 1909-1995 He understands that Confucianism passed through three stages which, from our perspective, represent the three key moments of greatest influence:

• a) From its origin to the moment of its state canonization: spanning from Confucius (551–479 BCE) to 董仲舒 Dǒng Zhòngshū (179–104 BCE).

• b) From the 宋 Sòng dynasty to the beginning of the 20th century: marking the beginning and end of Neo-Confucianism, both in China and in other East Asian countries.

• c) From the May Fourth Movement of 1919 to the present: the development of New Confucianism, which engages in dialogue with European and American philosophies.

b) Confucianism in Adaptation: Starting from interactions with other great schools of thought—such as Taoism, Legalism, Mohism, the 名家 Mínjiā, School of Names, and the 阴阳家 Yīnyángjiā, School of Yinyang, to mention only the most important—Confucianism becomes syncretic. This corresponds to the 汉 Hàn dynasty era, as well as the Period of the Six Dynasties. During this time, 玄学 Xuánxué, "Learning of the Dark" (known outside China as "Neo-Taoism"), develops, uniting Confucianism and Taoism in a very special way.

c) Confucianism in Transformation: During the 宋 Sòng (960–1279) and 明 Míng (1368–1644) dynasties, Confucianism is reformulated, giving rise to one of its most influential forms: 宋明理学 Sòng Míng lǐ xué, known outside China as "Neo-Confucianism." 姚新中 Yáo Xīnzhōng notes regarding this period:

"Inspired by Buddhist philosophy and Daoist spirituality, Confucian scholars reformulated the Confucian vision of the universe, society and the self on the one hand, and tried to strip Confucian Learning of elements they considered to be Buddhist superstitions on the other." (Yáo 2000:28)

d) Confucianism in Variation: As it became known first in other Asian countries and subsequently in Europe and America, Confucianism combined with local traditions and theories, giving rise to new hybrid variants.

e) Confucianism in Renewal: Confucianism revitalizes in the 20th and 21st centuries, accompanying the political events of this era. Thus arises 现代新儒家 Xiàndài Xīn Rújiā, Contemporary New Confucianism.

Final Conclusions

Beyond the different periodizations, it is clear that 儒家 Rújiā succeeded in persisting throughout Chinese history by combining change with permanence. The mere consideration of its evolution does not tell us which elements change and which remain, but it at least provides a structure to systematize its study.

In the book we have taken as the basis for presenting these different periodizations—An Introduction to Confucianism by 姚新中 Yáo Xīnzhōng (Cambridge University Press, 2000)—the author offers this reflection on the continuing relevance of Confucianism: